家庭暴力和恐怖主義有什麼共同之處

One of the first things we learned about Omar Mateen, the gunman in the nightclub massacre in Orlando, Florida, was that his ex-wife said he had beaten her severely until she left him in 2009.

關於佛羅里達奧蘭多夜店屠殺事件中的槍擊者奧馬爾·馬廷(Omar Mateen)，我們最初所瞭解的幾件事中，就包括他前妻的說法：她曾經遭受嚴重的家暴，直至2009年兩人分手。

If it sounds familiar that a gunman in a mass shooting would have a history of domestic violence, it should.

大規模槍擊事件中的行兇者通常有家暴史，這是一種耳熟能詳的說法，事實也的確如此。

In February, Cedric Ford shot 17 people at his Kansas workplace, killing three, only 90 minutes after being served with a restraining order sought by his ex-girlfriend, who said he had abused her. And Man Haron Monis, who holed up with hostages for 17 hours at a cafe in Sydney, Australia, in 2014 — an episode that left two people dead and four wounded — had terrorized his ex-wife. He had threatened to harm her if she left him, and was eventually charged with organizing her murder.

今年2月，堪薩斯州的錫德里克·福特(Cedric Ford)在自己工作的地方開槍擊中17人，其中三人喪生，而90分鐘前，他剛剛收到前女友針對他申請的禁制令，她稱福特虐待她。2014年，曼·哈倫·莫尼斯(Man Haron Monis)在澳大利亞悉尼一家咖啡館扣押人質長達17小時，導致兩人死亡，四人受傷，他也曾經恐嚇過自己的前妻。他威脅說，如果前妻離開自己，他就會傷害她，最終他因爲策劃謀殺她而遭到起訴。

When Everytown for Gun Safety, a gun control group, analyzed FBI data on mass shootings from 2009 to 2015, it found that 57 percent of the cases included a spouse, former spouse or other family member among the victims — and that 16 percent of the attackers had previously been charged with domestic violence.

控槍組織Everytown for Gun Safety對FBI從2009年到2015年關於大規模槍擊案的數據進行了分析，發現在57%的案例中，受害者包括了行兇者的配偶、前配偶或其他家庭成員，還有16%的案例中，行兇者曾經因家庭暴力遭到起訴。

Social scientists have not settled on an explanation for this correlation, but their research reveals striking parallels between the factors that drive the two phenomena.

社會科學家尚未對此項相關性做出解析，但他們的研究揭示出，家庭暴力與大規模槍擊的成因之間有極高的的相似性。

There are, of course, a tangle of factors behind every murder, especially terrorism inspired by foreign groups. But research on domestic violence hints at a question that often arises from seemingly inexplicable events like Mateen’s massacre of 49 people at an Orlando nightclub — what drives individuals to commit such mass attacks? — and sheds light on the psychology of violence.

當然，每一起謀殺事件之後都有着複雜的成因，特別是由外國組織煽動的恐怖主義事件。但是對家庭暴力的研究揭示出這樣一個問題，它通常在馬廷在奧蘭多夜店屠殺49人這類那些看似無法解釋的事件中出現——個體做出大規模攻擊事件背後的驅動力是什麼？這個問題有助於人們瞭解暴力的心理學。

‘Intimate Terrorism’

“親密恐怖主義”

Domestic violence often follows a pattern in which an abuser seeks to control every aspect of a victim’s life. The scope and intent of this are hinted at in one name experts use for it: “intimate terrorism.”

家庭暴力經常遵循這樣一種模式：虐待者謀求控制受害者生活中的方方面面。專家們稱之爲“親密恐怖主義”，從中不難看出這種控制的範疇與內容。

“The perpetrator is engaging in a general pattern of control over the victim — her finances, her social contacts, the clothes she wears,” said Deborah Epstein, who runs Georgetown University Law Center’s domestic violence clinic.

“施害者對受害者施行一種普遍的控制模式，力圖控制她的錢，她的社會交往，乃至她的穿着打扮，”喬治城大學(Georgetown University)法律中心家庭暴力診所的負責人黛博拉·愛潑斯坦(Deborah Epstein)說。

Violence is the perpetrator’s means of enforcing that control — and of punishing any attempts to break it.

暴力是施害者施行控制的方法之一，也是對受害者試圖擺脫控制的懲罰手段。

Mateen’s brief marriage to Sitora Yusufiy seems to fit this model. She has said that he forced her to hand over her paychecks to him, forbade her to leave the house except to go to work, and prevented her from contacting her parents. Even small perceived infractions were met with a violent response.

馬廷與西托拉·優素菲(Sitora Yusufiy)的短暫婚姻似乎正符合這個模式。她說馬廷曾經逼迫她把自己的薪水交給他，除非上班，否則禁止她離開家，還阻止她與父母聯繫。如果馬廷認爲她違背了禁令，哪怕極爲輕微，都會向她施以暴力。

“He would just come home and start beating me up because the laundry wasn’t finished or something like that,” Yusufiy told The Washington Post.

“他回到家裏就打我，只因爲我沒洗完衣服之類的事情，”優素菲在接受《華盛頓郵報》採訪時說。

Take this dynamic of coercive violence to its most horrible extreme, and it looks an awful lot like how the Islamic State treats women in its self-proclaimed caliphate. As my Times colleague Rukmini Callimachi has reported, the group has created a vast infrastructure of rape and slavery in which women are held captive and bought and sold by its fighters. It is intimate violence on an industrial scale.

這種強制暴力發展到最恐怖的極致，似乎就很像伊斯蘭國(Islamic State)在其自稱的哈里發國(caliphate)中對待女人的方式。據我在《紐約時報》的同事魯克米尼·卡利馬基(Rukmini Callimachi)報道，這個組織製造了一個大型的強姦與奴役體系，受害女性被其戰士囚禁和買賣。這種親密暴力達到了一種產業規模。

Domestic violence, experts say, is also often a way for male abusers to impose their view of “traditional” gender roles. Epstein said such “traditions” in the United States were rooted in the idea of men having control over women.

專家稱，家庭暴力通常是男性虐待者把自己對“傳統”性別角色的看法強加於人的方式。愛潑斯坦說，在美國，這種“傳統”深深植根在男人必須控制女人的觀念之中。

“That’s our culture: It’s all about men controlling women in their lives,” she said. “Intimate terrorism stems from that desire to control.”

“這就是我們的文化，男人必須掌控女人的生活，”她說。“親密恐怖主義就發源於這種對控制的渴望。”

This bears striking similarities to how the Islamic State presents its treatment of women as a recruiting tool, promising young men abroad — particularly in Europe — that its caliphate will allow them to restore “traditional” gender norms of male dominance. This dominance is exercised in part through violence including systematic rape and the threat of rape. The group often presents this violence as a means to measure and protect men’s honor.

這又與伊斯蘭國對待女人的方式相吻合，他們以女人作爲招募新人的工具，向海外（特別是歐洲）的年輕男人承諾，他們的哈里發國會恢復“傳統”性別規範中男性的支配地位。這種支配地位部分是通過暴力來實現的，包括系統的強姦和強姦威脅。伊斯蘭國經常把這種暴力當做一種衡量與保護男性榮譽的方式。

It seems natural, then, that the Islamic State might appeal to men who desire that sort of control over the women in their lives, separate from any ideological draw — the kind of men who might have domestic violence in their past.

因此，除去意識形態方面的吸引力，伊斯蘭國自然對那些希望控制女人生活的男人們格外有吸引力，而這樣的男人過去是可能有家暴經歷的。

Nimmi Gowrinathan, a visiting professor at the City College of New York who studies women’s roles in insurgent and terrorist conflicts, said that restrictive norms about gender and sexuality could be a “pull” factor for terrorist organizations — but that people who are drawn to them are also often “pushed” by their own pre-existing attitudes or desires.

紐約市立大學(City College of New York)的訪問教授尼米·高里納森(Nimmi Gowrinathan)專門研究婦女在暴動與恐怖主義衝突中的角色，他說關於性別與性取向的限制性規範可以成爲恐怖主義組織中的一個“推動性”因素，但是受他們吸引的人也通常受到自身早已形成的態度或慾望所“推動”。

Personal and Global Grievances

個人與全球的不幸處境

Terrorist attacks and mass shootings garner attention and frighten the public much more than episodes of domestic violence. But domestic violence has a much higher death toll in the United States.

恐怖襲擊與大規模槍擊遠比零星的家庭暴力事件更能獲得大衆的關注，並且更能引發公衆的恐懼。但是在美國，家庭暴力導致的死亡率遠比恐怖襲擊高。

According to the Violence Policy Center, 895 women in the United States were murdered by their current or former intimate partners in 2013 (and this does not include those killed amid mass shootings). That single-year tally is more than nine times the 92 people the New American Foundation has counted as killed in jihadi attacks on U.S. soil in the past decade.

根據暴力政策中心(Violence Policy Center)公佈的數據，2013年，有895名女人被現任或前任親密伴侶殺死（其中不包括在大規模槍擊事件中遇害的情況）。根據新美國基金會(New American Foundation)統計，過去十年裏，在美國本土，有92人死於同聖戰分子有關的襲擊，換言之，僅僅在2013年一年裏，死於家庭暴力者的數字就高出這個數字九倍之多。

But there are striking parallels between the intimate terrorism of domestic violence and the mass terrorism perpetrated by lone-wolf attackers like Mateen seems to have been. Both, at their most basic level, are attempts to provoke fear and assert control.

但是家庭暴力中的親密恐怖主義與馬廷這種孤狼襲擊者帶來的大規模恐怖主義似乎存在驚人的相似之處。二者在最基本的層面都是旨在引發恐懼，主張自己的控制權。

Domestic violence, experts say, often occurs when an abuser concludes that violence is the best tool to solve his or her grievances. That might mean a husband who perceives his wife’s failure to do the laundry as a challenge to his rightful authority, leading him to try to reimpose his will through violence.

專家稱，當虐待者認爲暴力是解決自己不幸處境的最佳工具時，家庭暴力往往隨之發生。這可能意味着，丈夫把妻子沒有洗好衣服視爲對自己權威的挑戰，因而誘發他再度通過暴力來實現自己的意志。

Clark McCauley, a professor at Bryn Mawr College who studies the psychology of mass violence and terrorism, said he was not aware of research finding a causal relationship between domestic violence and terrorism. But he has found that a characteristic common to mass killers is a sense of grievance: a belief that someone, somewhere, had wronged them in a way that merited a violent response.

布林莫爾學院(Bryn Mawr College)研究大規模暴力與恐怖主義心理學的教授克拉克·麥考利(Clark McCauley)說，他不知道是否有研究表明發現家庭暴力和恐怖主義之間存在因果關係。但他發現，大規模殺人兇手中往往存在一種典型的共同之處——有怨氣，認爲某個人或某個地方錯待了他們，因而他們做出暴力的迴應是正當的。

Gender Norms, Gender Panic

性別規範，性別恐慌

A domestic abuser’s desire to impose, by force, supposed traditional gender roles also sometimes includes sexuality. Such abusers, experts say, may see homosexuality as a threat to their masculinity.

家庭暴力的施害者喜歡把傳統性別角色強制施加於人，有時也包括傳統性取向。專家稱，有些施害者認爲同性戀是對他們的男子氣概的一種威脅。

“There is an idea that what it means to be masculine is to be vigilant of your sexuality, and hypervigilant towards keeping anyone from perceiving you as gay,” said Gillian Chadwick, a fellow at Georgetown University Law Center.

“有種觀點認爲，有男子氣概就是要對自己的性取向保持警惕，要非常當心，不讓任何人認爲你是男同性戀，”喬治城大學法律中心的吉莉安·查德維克(Gillian Chadwick)說。

Intimate terrorism, in that sense, rests on a broader spectrum of violence meant to preserve the traditional dominance of heterosexual men, and coerce those who are perceived as threatening that order. That spectrum, at the extreme end, includes mass shootings.

在這種意義上，親密恐怖主義依賴於一種更爲廣義的暴力，它旨在保持異性戀男性傳統的支配地位，並把這種秩序強加給那些被視爲威脅的人。這種廣義暴力的極端形式就包括大規模槍擊。

This connection makes it somewhat easier to understand an apparent contradiction: that Mateen targeted a gay nightclub and that his father and ex-wife have said he had a history of homophobic remarks, but that he also had been seen visiting Pulse, the gay nightclub he targeted, and, according to some news reports, used a gay dating app.

這種聯繫有助於我們理解一個看似矛盾的事實；馬廷選擇一家同性戀夜店作爲攻擊目標，他的父親與前妻都說他曾經發表恐同言論，但是根據一些新聞報道，有人目睹他光顧他所襲擊的這家夜店Pulse，而且還使用一款同性戀約會手機應用。

Could Mateen have been trying to use violence to reimpose rules about gender and sexuality that he himself was troubled about violating? If so, he would not be the first.

馬廷是否違背了性別與性取向的傳統規則，因而才試圖使用暴力來恢復這種準則？如果是這樣，他並不是第一個這麼做的人。

Chadwick said there was an entire category of legal argument, called “gay panic” and “trans panic” claims, in which defendants say that they turned to violence because they were so upset about being perceived as gay, or about discovering they were attracted to a transgender person.

查德威克說，在法律上，有一個類別就叫做“同性戀恐慌”與“跨性別恐慌”主張——在這種情況下，被告稱， 他們被視爲同性戀，或者發現跨性別者對自己感興趣，因此感到不安，所以纔會採取暴力行爲。