中英雙語話歷史 第87期:清朝(前清和中期文化)
Literature ： The Qing emperors understood themselves as patrons of artistsand writers. Especially the Emperor Kangxi promoted the compilation and publication of all knowledge and writing of China.
During his reign the History of Ming Dynasty came off the press, along with, the illustrated encyclopedia Gujin Tushu Jicheng , the Collection of Tang Poetry and Tang Prose Writings , the character dictionary Kangxi Dictionary , the Rhyme Dictionary , and the collection Siku Quanshu , a compendium that tried to subsummize all existent writings that had ever been published. Emperor Kangxi made great cotributions to Chinese literature.
在他執政時期，出版發行了《明史》、《古 今圖書集成》、《全唐詩》、《全唐文》，以及《康熙字典》、《佩文韻府》和《四庫全書》。 《四庫全書》嘗試着對所有已發表的作品進行總結。康熙皇帝爲中國文學發展作出了很大貢獻。However his two successors went to far In order to ensure their rulership, they got literary inquisitions into full swing. Therefore, literary critics at that time were punished. The literary standard of the Qing rulers also enclosed demoralizing writings. Qing novels, which are colorful and rich in daily language, is therefore very different from Yuan and Ming novels.
但是，他的兩個繼承人爲了確保他們的統治地位而大搞“文字獄”。 爲此，清政府時期的文學評論家受到了懲罰。清朝統治者的文學標準封殺了有傷風化的文學作品,清朝時期的小說與元朝和明朝時期的多姿多彩的和日常生活用語豐富的小說不一樣。
Qing novels like Cao Xueqin^ 14 Dream of Red Mansion , Wu Jingzi'S The Scholars , 〇nd Xi〇 Jingxu^ u Words of an Old Peasant Sunning are written in a very subtitle language with many reminiscences to the old literature that can only be understood by well educated people.
清朝時期的小說主要有曹雪芹的《紅樓夢》、吳敬梓的《儒林外史》、夏敬渠的《野叟曝言》，所有這些小說語言精練，並大多數都帶有古文學 的味道，並且只有那些受到過良好教育的人才能讀懂。Likewise are the short story collections like Pu Songling 44 Strange Accounts from, the Leisure Study , Yuan Mei^ u What Confucius did not Say f,, and Ji Yun u Essays from the Short Grass Hall”? Less popular anthologies are Pu Songling’s “Xingshi Yinyuan” or a Matrimonial Causations Awakening the World.
同樣的作品還有蒲松齡的短篇小說集《聊齋志異》、袁枚的《子不語》、紀昀的《閱微草堂筆記》等。還有一些 就是和前者相比略顯遜色的蒲松齡的《醒世因緣》等等。In the sphere of high-class theatre, we also find a subtle and romantic style in the plays of Li Yu (the erotic novel M Rouputuan or M Carnal Prayer Matyi is attributed to him), Hong Sheng (u Hall of Everlasting Life ) 〇nd Kong Shangren ( Peach Blossom Fan ).
戲曲方面有創作細膩、充滿浪漫色調的戲曲作品，如，李漁(性愛小說《肉蒲團》就是描寫李漁的）、洪昇（《長生殿》）和孔尚任（《桃花扇》）等的戲曲作品。From the end of 18th century on, the private correspondence between scholars was written in a very free and apolitical style (for example, the autobiography u Six Records of an Unsteady Life ty by Shen Fu), and even in the public sphere, we find writers that did not hesitate to show their unconventional standpoint, like the poet and essayist Yuan AAei and Li Ruzhen (writing the nover“The Causal Connection of a Flower and Its Mirror Reflection”）who both supported thoughts of equal rights for women.
從18世紀末期開始，文人之間開始用自由的非官方用語的形式互通信件（如 沈復自傳《浮生六記》）。不僅如此，甚至在公開場合下也使用自由體和非官方文 體，他們毫不猶豫地表達了自己的非傳統觀點，如詩人和散文作家袁枚和李汝珍 (著有《鏡花緣》）。同時，這兩位作家還贊成男女平等的女權主義思想。For the scholars that lived during the conquest of the Manchu, the downfall of the Ming regime was a prove for the abuse of authoritarian power of the central government in Beijing.
對於那些見證了滿清的征服又看到了明朝的滅亡的學者們來說，他們知道明朝時期北京政府的高度集權和濫用職權最後導致了明朝的滅亡。However, these people did not only criticize the Ming autocracy, and thereby supporting the new Qing rulers. Thinkers and philosophers of the new age (mid 17th century to 18th century) also criticized the traditional, sterile and impeding style of Confucian classics that had been interpreted by the Neo-Confucianists of the Song and Ming eras. Criticizing or overworshiping the liter-ature authoritarism of the Ming also meant doubting the legitimacy of the new rulers.
但是，這些文人墨客們，一方面 批判明朝的獨裁統治，一方面又支持新的清朝獨裁統治者。新時期（從17世紀中 期到18世紀）的思想家和哲學家們也批判宋、明時期所演繹的傳統、乏味和有礙於文學發展的儒家作品。批判和過於尊崇明朝時期的文學同樣都是質疑清朝早期統治者的權威性。Many scholars were put to death for opposing the Qing regime, like Jin Shengtan, but others stayed unmolested, like the important history critics Huang Zongxi, the evolution theoretician Wang Fuzhi, Fang Yizhi, and Gu Yanwu. All of these philosophers were oriented to practical sciences and interpreted philosophy only as one part of a cosmism of sciences, the study of classical Confucian writings and their interpretations were by no means the heart of education.
清朝時期也有很多學者由於反對清朝的統治而被處死，如金聖嘆等。但是，也有一些人卻安然無恙，如，舉足輕重的歷史學家黃宗羲,進化論觀點持有者王夫之、方以智和顧炎武，所有這些哲學家們都致力於研究實學、並聲稱哲學不過是科學宇宙進化論的一部分而已，對儒家作品的研究和釋義無論如何都不能 成爲學習和教育的重心。This viewpoint was deduced by Gu Zuyu, Mei Wending, Yan Yuan, and Li Gong. The school of thinking that leads to a deepgoing change in the life of Confucian classics was the movement of text criticism that came up during the second half of 17th century.
這一觀點得到了顧祖禹、梅文鼎、顏元和李埭的進一步演 繹。這一導致儒家大作深刻變化的思潮源於17世紀後期對教科書的批判。The Rites of Zhou and the Book of Documentswere identified as later compositions than they purported to be, many histories and stories about early Confucian saints and rulers were detected as being later inventions. The Book of Songs did not only contain hymns for the Zhou rulers, but also simple love songs.
《周禮》和《尚書》事實上要比人們所認爲的出現的晚得多，其中，很多有關早期儒家聖 人和統治者的歷史和故事也不過是人的杜撰而已。《詩經》不僅有關於周朝統治者 的頌歌，也有關於樸素愛情的詩歌。Confucius and the writings attributed to him were dethroned by man like Wan Sida, Yan Ruoqu, Hu Wei, Yuan Mei, Wang Zhong, Cui Shu, and Hui Dong.
那些被認爲是屬於統治者的儒家思想和作品 則被清朝時期的文人和作家所廢棄，這些人有萬斯大、閻若璩、胡渭、袁枚、汪中、崔 述和惠棟等。This movement was quite similar to the first researches of the Greek and Hebrew original texts of the bible, a book whose Latin version had been sacrosanct since the being of Christianity.
這種舉動和對希臘語、希伯來語版本的《聖經》的早期研究極爲相似， 而拉丁語版本的《聖經》自從基督教誕生以來被認爲是最爲神聖的。Zhang Xuecheng was one of the first historians to lay stress on the importance of local history of the huge empire of China. Every document, he said, had to be incorporated into a historiography, and not only annals and edicts like the official histories did. Historiography should also be a personal work although there might be subjective interpretations.
章學誠是首先 強調龐大中國地方歷史的歷史學家之一。他認爲，每卷史書都應融人編年史者的 工作，而不應該像官府史書那樣僅僅是歷史記載和政府法令的記錄，編史工作可以 是個人行爲，儘管會摻雜有個人的主觀釋義。Probably the most important writer and scientist of early and middle Qing peri-od was Dai Zhen, a universal scholar, mathematician, philologist, one of the ed卜 tors of the collection Siku Quanshu , and philosopher； the most objective and earnest criticist of Neo-Confucian interpretation of the classical writings and their nature philosophy.
可以說，清朝早、中期的最主要的作家和科學家是戴震。戴震是一位多才多藝 的學者，他是數學家，語言學家，《四庫全書》編纂者之一和哲學家，是古典文學作品 新儒思想釋義和自然哲學最客觀、最認真的評論家。His most important philosophical writing might be The Origin of Goodness ’’ or Yuanshan ? Instead of the Neo-Confucian universal order, he interpreted any being as being guided and led by breath, odem or matter that helps the abstract cosmic order to manifest all appearances.
其最主要的哲學作品是《原 善》。他解釋說任何人都受呼吸和氣的引導，而不是新儒理論，氣能助道在各方面 展現。Books about practical science and philology were not only written and published by scholars or officials, but also by rich merchants that patronized writers and artists and that engaged themselves in studies about geography, chronology, epigraphy, mathematics, philology, and the Confucian Classics.
除此之外，有關實學和語言學的書籍也由學者和官方大量出版。同時，那些 贊助作家和藝術家的、甚至自己也直接參與學習研究地理、編年史、碑文學、數學、 語言學和儒家思想的富商們也積極出版發行作品。The places for scholars preparing for the state examinationswere provided by private academies. Private studies and patronage only ended with the financial and economical ruin of the rich merchant families of the lower Yangtze area at the end of 18th century. But all of these made the writing prosperous in the early and middle of the Qing Dynasty.
當時，學子們備考科舉的地方276由書院提供。最後，由於18世紀末期長江下游富商之家金融和經濟的衰敗而致使 私學和個人資助而告終。不過，所有這些，還是讓清朝早中期的文學曾經一度繁榮。Science and technology ： There are many fields of social activities and sciences the two cultural spheres learned from each other. During the end of Ming and beginning of Qing Dynasty, the Jesuit padres residing at the imperial court in Beijing was important media for the cultural and technical exchange from east to west and vice versa.
科學技術:清朝時期，東西方在很多社會活動和科學領域中相互學習。明末清初，耶穌教傳道士居住北京皇宮，這就是東西方文化和科技交流的重要媒介。While the Jesuits showed to the Chinese upper class the technical inventions made in Europe during the past century, like watches and astronomical instruments, they were impressed by the high standards of Chinese medicine, and land surveying.
當這些耶穌使者向中國的上層階級展現歐洲在上一個世紀重大科技發明的同時，包括 手錶、天文儀器等，他們也被中國的高超的醫療水平和土地勘查所深深打動。Chinese painters and musicians adopted European concepts of art. Chinese painters and calligraphers had always stood in the century-old tradition of elder patterns and models. Musicians did not live as famous composers, but as nameless instruments of the ritual art of music.
中國 畫家和音樂家吸收採納了歐洲藝術概念。那時，中國畫家和書法家一直停留在對 有百年之久的老格局和傳統模式的表達。音樂家不是作爲著名的創作人而存在，而是音樂形式藝術中名不見經傳的樂器而存在。The west was inspired by technically improved objects like suspension-bridges with iron chains, a push cart with a sail, rotating de-spelting machines, magnetism, and much more. The great universal genius Leibniz undertook deepgoing investigations into Chinese technique.
西方被中國的高科技成就，如鐵 索懸橋、有帆手推車、磁力學等所震驚。世界著名天才人物雷柏尼茨曾經對中國科 學技術進行過深人研究。Silk worms were introduced to the west some centuries before, but industrial production of silk could only be established in the 16th century. The German J. F. Bett-ger accidentally invented porcelain, but the need for Chinese porcelain was very high in the stream of a China fashion in 18th century Europe.
中國蠶絲在幾個世紀之前就傳人歐洲，但是，絲綢工業生 產直到16世紀纔出現。德國人J. F.伯特格爾一次偶然的機會發明瞭瓷器，但是， 18世紀的歐洲仍然大量需要中國瓷器。Philosophers interpreted the tranquil and prosperous empire of the Kangxi and Qianlong Emperors as the ideal state, headed by a wise monarch. Until the end of 18th century, China was technically much more advanced than the west, and only the industrial revolution helped the western states to become prevalent powers during the 19th century, giving them a sentiment of being superior to the backward Chinese empire.
哲學家們認爲，清朝康熙、乾隆統治時期 的兩大盛世理想的國度，是明君執政的理想國度。直到18世紀末，中國在科技方 面一直比西方世界先進，只是後來19世紀的工業革命使西方諸國變成優勢國家， 讓他們有了比落後的中國王朝先進的優越感。Art：Qing Dynasty art can be called a culmination of all art styles that have been developed during the past 2500 years. Unlike Ming artists , artisans, painters, calligraphers and craftsmen during the Qing period used very old forms and shapes for their works of art.
藝術:清朝時期的藝術是過去2500年間中國各種藝術形式發展的頂峯時期。 不同於明朝，清朝時期的藝術家、手工藝人、畫家、書法家以及工匠們在創作藝術作 品時都使用極爲傳統的形式和格式。Chinaware and lacquerware objects were given not only the bulgy shapes that had developed since the Song Dynasty, but we find also vases or cups with the shape of Shang or Zhou bronze ware like the zun type. Gourd shapes vessels，vases with three openings or more，the typical “rice” bowls and the small tea cups and tea pots we know today all developed during the QingDynasty.
瓷器和漆器製作時，不僅使用了源於宋朝的 突出形狀，花瓶和杯子也採用了商、周的銅器形狀,如樽等。葫蘆狀容器、三開嘴或 多開嘴的花瓶、獨有特色的“飯”碗，以及小茶杯、茶壺等，即便是現代的人們也是耳 熟能詳，都是源於清朝時期。The typical bluegreen of the Ming chinaware changed to a broader palett of colors, ranging from orange to green and gold ； Qing chinaware is much more colorful than the former types.
明朝時期的藍綠色爲特色的瓷器，在清朝時期發生了 極大變化，色彩趨向多樣化，從橘黃色到綠色、金色等。所以清朝時期的瓷器比以 往任何朝代的瓷器都更加豐富多彩。New materials extensively used now are enamel, cloisonne and glass ware. Materials like jade, gold and cloisonne are first combined in a single art object.
現在，人們廣泛使用的新材料是琺琅、景泰藍 和玻璃製品。玉、黃金和景泰藍第一次同時使用在一件製品中。Additionally, a dark wooden base for vases or other i-tems came up. We also possess a lot of objects made from easy decayable materials like wood or bamboo, for example furniture, and of course cloth material that served as daily worn dress, or as simple object of admiration.
除此之外,黑木花 瓶和其他藝術品也開始出現。到現在我們仍然擁有大量的使用易於腐爛的材料如 木頭和竹子製成的物件，如傢俱等。當然，還有我們日常穿戴的布料或者簡易的小 飾品等。In the field of calligraphy, Qing artists went on to use the traditional styles of writing, but unlike Ming calligraphers, people now studied the oldest examples of Chinese script like the oracle bones and bronze vessel inscriptions. With the advent of Christian missionaries in China, Chinese painters learned from the Jesuits Western painting techniques like perspective and the use of oil-paint instead of monochrome ink.
在書法領域，清朝書法家繼續沿用傳統的書法形式。但是,與明朝書法家 不同的是，清朝書法家研究的是中國手跡的最古老的範本，如卜骨和銅器上的刻文 等。清朝時期隨着大批基督教傳道士的到來，中國畫家也吸收了基督教中的繪畫 技巧，如透視法和油畫技術取代了單色墨畫。Even buildings and palaces were constructed according to the Western style, like the Yuanmingyuan Palace that was destroyed in the 19th century the Eight-Power Allied Forces. Typical for the Qing Dynasty private houses are the many gardens laid out by rich families in Suzhou and Hangzhou.
甚至樓房和宮殿的建造也是仿照西 方風格，如在19世紀被八國聯軍毀掉的圓明園。清朝時期民間建築的典型形式是 蘇州、杭州的富有之家建造的衆多園林建築。
